Inclusion and Cultural Differences
As we saw in Chapter 1, modern science has its history in natural philosophy and connects several global civilizations. However, the scientific revolution started in Western Europe followed by European imperialism and colonialism. This intrinsically linked science as a Western knowledge system which excluded colonised populations as well as women and other minority groups. Prestigious prizes in science (such as the Nobel prize) lean heavily towards Western scientists and other groups have often been systematically excluded from the scientific endeavour.
Pride and prejudice
In 2005 Science, on of the most prestigious peer-reviewed journals in the world, published an article about the successful cloning of 11 person-specific stem cells using 185 human eggs (Hong, 2008). Hwang Woo-suk of South Korea’s Seoul National University became a national sensation. He was declared South Korea’s supreme scientist while Time magazine listed him among the “People Who Mattered 2004” and one of the most influential people “The 2004 Time 100.” Rumours circulated that Hwang may be the first to bring a Nobel prize in science to South Korea, an award that was much sorted as a source of national pride and prestige.
Later on in 2005, it came to light that Hwang had pressured subordinates who worked for him into donating their eggs. Other eggs were found to have been sourced from paid donors (a clear violation of bioethics). In addition, further investigation showed that Hwang had fabricated most of his data and results. The papers that Hwang published were retracted. Hwang was also found guilty of embezzlement and ethics violations.
Part of the reason that Hwang was able to get away with such crimes was the national sentiment about having a world-famous scientist represent them in the world stage. In addition, the low status of women without children in traditional Korean society may have led to such women thinking they were contributing to society by taking part in a (potentially) harmful procedure.
Such cases illustrate how people may manipulate the public for their own ends using science and national pride as an excuse. The great respect accorded to scientists and experts also led to people unquestioningly submitting to the demands of a man who turned out to be an unethical “scientist” and criminal.
In addition to the exclusion of some groups, others have been actively exploited by scientists. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study is a famous example of African American sharecroppers being denied life-saving syphilis medication by physicians so that they can be studied on how the disease progressed. In Canada, the residential school system indoctrinated Indigenous children into following Christianity and tried to associate scientific literacy with religion so as to stamp out Indigenous religious identity and practices. Such historical injustices have created an (understandable) suspicion of modern science in these communities as they see it as the tool of the oppressor.
Another issue has been the promotion of non-scientific topics as alternative knowledge systems to modern science. Such endeavours often use historical injustices as an excuse to associate science with oppression and therefore, promote their own knowledge systems as the moral alternative. Fears of being called prejudiced or xenophobic can cause a chilling effect where scientists might self-censor themselves and not challenge these alternative systems. This can be counterproductive as it diminishes public appreciate for science and can even be harmful if people do not follow medical advice or government safety initiates.
However, as we have seen throughout this book, science is a human endeavour and not associated with any culture or civilization. Surveys of populations in Western societies have shown no greater understanding or appreciation of science compared to non-Western ones. In addition, anyone (regardless of gender, ethnicity, sexuality or other identity) can pursue and appreciate science as it is the only true human universal. The job of scientists is to ensure that science is viewed as such by the general population and not used as the tool of oppression and exclusion as it was used in the past.
